Objective 42: Immunity

Distinguish non-specific, innate or natural immunity from specific or acquired immunity.........

Active vs. Passive & Natural vs. Artificial Humoral Immunity

Natural Acquired Active - Exposure to the disease

Artificial Acquired Active  - Immunizations

Natural Acquired Passive - From Mom (temporary)

Artificial Acquired Passive - Injected (temporary)

This is a brief passage from one of my nursing lecture outlines.  I immediately thought of my E-Portfolio project when I read this.  I think that this stuck with me because its such a simplistic breakdown of the information, yet it still works!  Sometimes we all hit a mental road-block (or two or three) during the course of a semester, and it takes short, direct, no-nonsense info to get the job done!

Objectives 34, 37, & 41: Lymph organs, Immune System and B & T Cells

Components and functions of the lymphatic and immune system and primary and secondary lymphatic organs.  Development and maturation of B and T Cells.

http://www.biog1105-1106.org/demos/105/unit7/lymphaticsys.html



I thought that this was a great picture in that it gives a good overview of both the primary and secondary lymph organs as well as a brief description of the role that they play in the lymphatic and immune systems.  To be perfectly honest, I've never really given the lymphatic system much thought prior to now (Big Surprise, most people probably never do)!  And furthermore, I guess I wasn't really all that sure what it actually was.  The lymphatic and immune systems are sort of a jumble of organs that all really belong to another system! Prior to this class, I certainly never thought of bone as playing a part in immunity, yet its marrow is the site where the body produces blood cells including the lymphocytes (T-Cells and B-Cells) that protect our body from invading  pathogens through direct cellular and humoral responses.  While the B-Cells remain in the bone marrow for maturation, The T-Cells then go on to the Thymus (Hey, isn't that an endocrine organ?) to mature and prepare for battle against invaders.

 I think that I mentioned on an earlier slide that related to blood that there was so much information on the white blood cells, that I was simply trying to memorize the information.  In the chapters on immunity and the lymphatic system, that information all started to make sense. 

Objectives 35 and 38: Lymph flow and Lymph and Edema

Well, as you can see from the picture above, from the Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual**, I took alot of notes in lab that day!  Understanding lymph flow goes back to the process of diffusion for me.  The understanding that fluids (especially one that is primarily water) will follow salt (or solutes) and that molecules will move from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration.  The operation of moving lymph from the interstitial fluid into the lymphatic capillaries works on this same principal, the lymph essentially moves because of a pressure gradient. When the fluid pressure outside of the lymphatic capillaries is higher on the outside, lymph flows in. How does it move through the body?  Because there is no pump for the lymph fluid, it moves through the body very much the same way that blood returns from the distal limbs to the heart; through skeletal muscle contraction and change in pressure due to respiration. Understanding that the lymph node pictured above is essentially a large filter for all of the junk (no, thats not the technical term) that your body has to process; its easy to understand that the nodes can sometimes become "backed up".  This backing up of the lymph fluid can cause localized edema.

Nurses Note: Metastasizing cancers can get trapped in the lymph nodes and cause the nodes to become a secondary cancer site.  The surrounding lymph nodes are often removed in many cancer treatments.

Objectives 36, 39, & 40 - Lymphatics and Immunity

Ok, I have to say, I loved this video!  They actually showed this to us in one of our nursing classes!  Alot of the students in the nursing program still have their last two sciences to take.  Let me state for the record, I would be struggling through this first semester if I didn't have the knowledge base that I've gained in Bio-211 this semester.  The bottom line is that in showing this video they were trying to impart the information that we took two or more lecture periods to learn in class. 

Nurses Note: A big thing that we learn about in our nursing fundamentals classes is handwashing!  You would think that this would be a pretty basic skill.  Unfortunately, nosocomial infections (or health care acquired infections) are one of the largest causes of infection being spread.  This simply comes down to healthcare professionals not properly cleaning their hands in a hospital setting.   

Objective 31 and 32 Major Veins and Arteries

Again, I'm a repetition learner.  Thats why pictures like these from our lab book** help me to learn the names and locations of the major veins and arteries of the body as well as the regions of the body that they spply blood to.  And you can see from my original note to myself on the arteries page, this seemed like quite a task at the beginning!

Objectives 30 and 33 Heart valves and Venous valves

The lecture PowerPoint and the text had great step-by step pictures that demonstrated how the heart valves ensured one-way blood flow through the heart. 

Nurse's Note: Why it matters and how to apply it as a nurse: A problem with the right side of the heart not functioning properly will result in swelling or edema throughout the body whereas a problem with the left side of the heart will typically result in an issue of congestion in the lungs.

http://www.nsbri.org/HumanPhysSpace/focus2/bpflo.html

Just another amazing trait of the human body!  The venous valves are formed from folds of the tunica intima, the innermost layer of the vein.  These valves close as needed to aid in returning the blood from the limbs back to the heart to be reoxygenated.

Objectives 25 - 28 Physiology, Cardiac cycle, EKG, and heart sounds

phys·i·ol·o·gy [ fìzzee ólləjee ]   

1. study of functioning of living things: the branch of biology that deals with the internal workings of living things, including functions such as metabolism, respiration, and reproduction, rather than with their shape or structure
2. body's internal processes: the way a particular body or organism works 

• Encarta World English Dictionary



This video was a huge help in understanding the physioloogy of the heart as well as the processes that the heart went through in each stage of the cardiac cycle.  It went on further to relate the cardiac cycle to the electrical conducting system of the heart.  Understanding how these two items correspond to one another helped me to understand the value of an EKG (or ECG) as a diagnostic tool.

Nurse's Note: Defects in the hearts conduction system cause many common arrhythmias such as V-Fib (ventricular fibrillation). The EKG is the most common tool for determining where any issues within the heart and its conduction system arise from.  Some arrhythmias require the placement of a man-made pacemaker in order to help the heart to beat within its defined parameters in order to maintain homeostasis of the body.

Objectives 23 & 24: Major vessels of the heart and heart structures

This picture taken from one of the PowerPoint presentations from Chapter 17 served multiple purposes for me.  First and foremost, I learn through repetition, so printing out this unlabeled picture of the open heart allowed me to practive labeling the chambers of the heart and their associated valves.  It was also useful in reviewing the major vessels entering and leaving the heart and in helping to understand the structure and appearance of the chamber walls, the chordae tendinae, the trabeculae, and the papillary muscles.

Objective 16 - The path of blood

Exercises done in lab as well as discussion time in lecture helped me to grasp the course that blood followed through the heart and the systemic and pulmonary circuits.

Objective 29: Veins and Arteries

      Its been said a million times that a picture is worth a thousand words!  This holds true for me with this picture ...especially the slide photo of the vein and artery.  We had discussed in class that veins had a larger lumen and thinner walls than arteries but not one time did I envision that the vein was actually that much larger than the artery in diameter.  An odd misconception of mine I guess.  Prior to seeing this picture, I had a visual image, I understood that the arteries had a much thicker tunica media than the veins, this made perfect sense, but in my head they also had a larger diameter overall because of that thicker layer. 

Anatomy and Physiology Textbook*

Objective 22 - Understanding the clotting process

Fast series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding:

1. Vascular spasm
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation

 Amazing!  This entire process amazes me!  The fact that at any given moment our bodies are capable of having so many different process occuring that affect our overall homeostasis.  I have to admit that this process was somewhat overwhelming for me at first.  Breaking it down into smaller steps enabled me to take in the information one piece at a time.

Nurses Note: Thromboembolic disorders commonly called PE (pulmonary embolism) and DVT (Deep Vein Thrombosis) are clotting disorders that can prove deadly.  Blood-thinners such as Warfarin and Coumadin are commonly prescribed to thin the blood and prevent the platelets from sticking together and causing clots.

Objective 21: Blood typing

• Types A, B, AB, and O
• Based on the presence of absence of two agglutinogens (A and B) on the surface of red blood cells
• Blood may contain Anti-A or Anti-B antibodies (agglutinins) that act against transfused RBC's with ABO antigens not normally present
• Anti-A or Anti-B form in the blood at about 2 months of age

Ok, dont ask me why....but this confuses me, STILL.  I get it in writing...the facts above all make perfect sense.  I have a clear understanding of what agglutinogens are and how the antibodies present in the blood will attack a foreign substance (ie: a different blood type).  However, when I see an actual blood sample, for some reason I can not figure out which one I'm looking at.  Maybe a little more time studying the chart below will help me!

Anatomy and Physiology textbook*

Objectives 18, 19, and 20. Blood: Leukocytes and Erythrocytes

These three charts shown in conjunction with one another helped give me a great overview on these objectives. The first explained in detail how both erythrocytes and leukocytes arise from stem cells and gave me a step by step of the process as they developed into blood cells.  The second chart gives a more in depth look at the components that form each type of blood cell.  The final chart gives information such as their lifespan, overall count in the blood, size, physical characteristics and their "JOB" in the body.  At first, I was using these charts simply to memorize the information on the blood cells, but as we got further into the chapter and the lecture information, it started to "click" that this all tied in together! That the bones that we studied in Bio-210 are where the blood cells arise from, and that those ions (that we studied ad-nauseum! ..SO THATS WHY WE HAD TO LEARN THOSE!)  play such an important part of so many body functions also help to comprise the blood.

Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory manual**

Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory manual**

Objective 17 - The functions of blood

The information provided in the lecture PowerPoint in regards to the functions of blood was largely review information for me.  The majority of this information was learned in BIO-100 in discussions regarding cellular respiration, the structure of water and heat capacity, pH and acidity, and in learning about the plasma membrane and cellular receptors.  

1. Distribution
1. Oxygen and nutrients to body cells
2. Metabolic wastes to lungs and kidneys for elimination
3. Hormones from endocrine organs to target organs or cells
2. Regulation
1. Of body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat
2. Normal pH using buffers
3. Adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system
3. Protection against:
1. Blood Loss
1. Plasma proteins and platelets initiate clot formation
2. Infection
1. Antibodies
2. Complement Proteins
3. WBC's defend against foreign invaders

Objective 15 - The Adrenal glands and stress

Discuss how the adrenal glands respond to stress....

http://www.interactivephysiology.com/ip10/endocrine/response/topic1.html

Love the interactive physiology website.  It gives a great in-depth explanation of the objectives that we're covering in class.  More importantly it offers creative ways to learn the information; whether its through videos, crossword puzzles, labeling, matching games or quizzes; they're all really useful tools to learn and understand the information. 

Objective 14 - Endocrine glands: function and histology

     Describe the location, histology, hormones and functions of the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands,the adrenal glands,the pancreas, the ovaries, the testes,the pineal gland and the thymus. 

This picture gave me a great overview of the different endocrine glands and helped me to classify which hormone was produced by that gland, how it affects the body. Simple pictures like this one help me to break down my learning by starting with a broad overview of the subject at hand.  Once I get the basics down pat it allows me to go into the fine details with a better understanding.

http://www.connecticutvalleybiological.com/endocrine-system-p-9247.html



Endocrine System Gland	Hormone Produced	Endocrine System Function
Pituitary gland	Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)	Helps kidneys to retain water and in presence of aldosterone it helps control blood pressure.
	Corticotropin (ACTH)	Controls production and secretion of hormones of the adrenal glands.
	Human growth hormone	Controls growth and development and promotes protein production.
	Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone	Controls reproductive functions that includes the production of sperm and semen, egg maturation, and menstruation. It also controls male and female sexual characteristics that includes hair distribution, muscle formation, skin texture and thickness, voice, and may even control personality traits.
	Oxytocin	It causes muscles of the uterus and milk ducts in the breast to contract.
	Prolactin	It starts and maintains milk production in the mammary glands.
	Thyroid-stimulating hormone	It causes stimulation, production and secretion of hormones of the thyroid gland.
Parathyroid glands	Parathyroid hormone	It controls formation of bones and the excretion of calcium and phosphorus.
Thyroid gland	Thyroid hormone	It regulates metabolic rate of the body.
	Calcitonin	The function of calcitonin in humans is still unclear but in other species, it regulates calcium balance.
Adrenal glands	Aldosterone	It helps in regulation of salt and water balance by retention of salt and water and excretion of potassium. Read more on functions of adrenal gland.
	Cortisol	It has widespread effects in the whole body. It mainly has anti-inflammatory action, maintaining blood sugar level, blood pressure, and muscle strength. It also helps control salt and water balance.
	Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)	It affects the bones, mood, and the immune system
	Epinephrine and norepinephrine	Stimulates the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and nervous system.
Pancreas	Glucagon	It helps in raising the blood sugar level.
	Insulin	It helps in lowering the blood sugar level, affects the metabolism of sugar, protein, and fat throughout the body.
Kidneys	Erythropoietin	Stimulates red blood cell production.
	Renin	It controls blood pressure.
Ovaries	Estrogen	It controls the development of female sex characteristics and the reproductive system.
	Progesterone	Prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and readies the mammary glands to secrete milk.
Testes	Testosterone	It controls the development of sexual characteristics in men and the reproductive system.
Digestive tract	Cholecystokinin	It controls the gallbladder contractions that cause bile to enter the intestine and stimulates release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas.
	Glucagon-like peptide	it increases insulin release from the pancreas.
	Ghrelin	It controls the growth hormone release from the pituitary gland and causes sensation of hunger.
Adipose (fat) tissue	Resistin	It blocks the effects of insulin on muscle.
	Leptin	It controls appetite.
Placenta	Chorionic gonadotropin	Stimulates the ovaries to continue releasing progesterone during early pregnancy.
	Estrogen and progesterone	It helps keep the uterus receptive to the fetus and placenta during pregnancy.

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/endocrine-glands-and-functions.html

Objectives 5 & 12 - Hypothalamus and Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex

¨Is the hypothalamus a true endocrine gland?  Hmmm, debatable I guess.  True endocrine glands are not supposed to have ducts, yet the hypothalamus does.  It has ducts connecting it to the posterior pituitary.  So instead of releasing hormones directly to the blood stream it releases hormones directly to the pituitary.  The pituitary then stores these hormones until it receives a signal from the hypothalamic neurons.  Either way you look at it, there’s a lot of information to remember here, its amazing that something as small as the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland can have such DRASTIC effects on your body and your overall wellbeing!  This picture helped me to wrap my brain around all of the hormones that were involved in this in-depth process!

 http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Models_of_hypothalamus

Objective 11 - Structure and function of endocrine system

Understand structure and function of the endocrine system in relation to growth and homeostasis.

I enjoyed this video that I found on YouTube because it gave a great overview of both the structure AND function of the endocrine system.  It covers structure by talking about the different classes of endocrine hormones, specifically the thyroid or steroid type hormones, and delves into the function with a great in-depth animation on how the glands actually work inside the cell.  The animations on target cells, negative feedback , and positive feedback help me to wrap my brain around the concepts.  Sometimes simply reading or hearing the information is just not enought to get a full comprehension.

Objective 10 - Identifying the classes of hormones

¨Identifying the classes of hormones was an objective that I had a relatively strong understanding of based on the information that we learned in Bio-100.  Realizing that the steroid hormones were lipid based and could therefore easily traverse a plasma membrane while the amine hormones were amino acid based and therefore required the help of a carrier protein to cross the membrane was more like a review of what we spent MONTHS on in BIO-100! 

Objective 4 - Endocrine and Exocrine glands

¨Differentiating between endocrine and exocrine glands is pretty easy.  Endocrine glands release their products into the blood stream or interstitial fluid, while exocrine glands release their product to the surface of an organ or the body itself.  The prefix of these words prevents their from being any confusion between the two.

¨ENDO = INTO

¨EXO = OUT OF

Objective 3 - Solving for unknowns

¨Solve for unknowns by manipulating variables......

¨This objective is easily understood as a basic math problem.  As with most math problems, applying the correct numbers to the formula provided will give you the correct end result.  An example of this can be found in the formulas for determining Pulse Pressure and Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP). 

¨ Pulse Pressure can be determined by subtracting the diastolic pressure from the systolic pressure of a blood pressure reading and the formula would read:

Systolic - Diastolic = Pulse Pressure. 

¨MAP or Mean Arterial Pressure can be determined by adding the diastolic number of the blood pressure reading to the pulse pressure divided by three and the formula would read:

¨Diastolic + Pulse pressure/ 3 = MAP. 

¨ An example is shown: In an individual with a blood pressure reading of 120/81.  Pulse pressure is determined by subtracting (120-81=39).  Therefore, pulse pressure is 39.  To go one step further and determine the MAP would read 81+39/3 or 81 + 13 for a Mean arterial pressure of 94. 

¨Practice problems like these are the easiest way for me to thoroughly understand and remember formulas and mathematical equations. And did I mention that they're a no-brainer!  LOVE objectives like these...once you're familiar with the formula, you're in the money!!!

Objective 9 - Bond types

Compare and Contrast Bond Types:

*Using and understanding the basic information that we learned in BIO-100 helps me to have an understanding of the bond types.  The basics that have been beaten into my brain after three semesters with Mrs. Gess include:

*A metal and a non-metal form an ionic bond due to the greedy-grabby nature of the non-metal!

*Covalent bonds are formed by either Carbon or two non-metals and have equal sharing (close to one another on the periodic table).

*Polar covalent bonds usually include Hydrogen and a gas (opposite sides of the periodic table) and share bonds but do not share them equally.

http://dangerzonewithdiggumsfoaly.wordpress.com/the-periocic-table/

Objective 7 - Factors affecting cellular activities

Analyze factors that can affect cellular activities....

This is an incredibly broad objective that could really go anywhere, so I ultimately decided to just simply make a list of things that we've studied that can affect cellular activites...

Disease and Illness

Excess or Deficient Enzyme activity

Excess or Deficient Hormonal Activity

Stress

Respiratory Acidosis

Respiratory Alkalosis

Metabolic Acidosis

Metabolic Alkalosis

Medications

Treatments/ Medical Procedures

Malnutrition

Protein/Vitamin/ Mineral Deficiency

Blood Pressure

Blood Volume

Immunodeficiency

Viral or Bacterial Infection

Dehydration

Temperature

Neural controls

So theres a point that I'm getting at here. There is not much of anything that has any effect on the body that could not in some way, shape, or form affect cellular activity.  If I've learned nothing else from this class, I have learned that the human body is an extremely complex machine in which all systems must be working "in concert with one another" in order to stay within the narrow range that helps the body to maintain homeostasis!

Objective 8 - Care & safety in dissections

¨Demonstrate correct care and safe use of instruments, equipment, and living organisms...

¨Applying the information that we used in lecture to lab discovery allows me to get a better feel for what we're discussing as well as a hands on understanding of what we're learning.

Objectives 2 & 6 - Critical thinking skills & oral and written communication

¨Apply critical and integrated thinking skills and using written and oral communication skills to explain scientific concepts......

¨Example: Discuss how the negative feedback mechanism controls hormonal activity and yet allows hypo and hyper secretion disorders to occur.

¨Recitation questions like those offered online and in the beginning of each class assist me in applying the information learned in class to practical everyday situations. Being able to discuss them in class allows an opportunity to practice oral communication skills and receive feedback and clarification.   both my classmates and the instructor. 

Objective One - Homeostasis, aging and stress

Understand overall body homeostasis with specific regard given to the effects of aging and stress on each system.

Ok, we all get the basic ideas of what stress does to our body.  This project is actually doing it to me RIGHT NOW!!!  Maybe in stressful times your palms start to sweat and your heart races a little faster. But do we really understand all of the underlying conditions that stress can cause and how it brings these conditions to light?  I honestly didnt before taking this class.  I've read articles in magazines related to stress and the release of cortisol and how it can affect belly fat (silly womens magazines)! Not one of those articles really explained WHY the body does that....that in times of stress the sympathetic nervous system kicks into action in order to help the body cope by:
1. Increasing heart rate and blood pressure
2. Converting glycogen to glucose to release into the blood stream
3. Dilating the bronchioles
4. Changing the blood flow pattern
5. Increasing the metabolic rate

Wow, increasing the metabolic rate, thats good stuff you say!  BUT WAIT...thats short term stressors.  That was great back in the caveman days when you were being chased by a dinosaur.  But that's NOT the type of stress most of us have today.  Most of us live with long-term stress, whether it be an overloaded schedule, monetary problems, or problems with our loved ones.  This type of stress has a different effect including:
1. Retention of sodium and water (we ladies don't like this one!)
2. Increasing blood volume and pressure
3. Converting proteins and fats to glucose or breaking them down for energy (this means breaking down our existing muscle mass).
4. Increasing blood glucose.
5. Suppression of the immune system.

These are what have the long-term effects on our bodies and produce the most wear and tear on our vital systems.  Yoga anyone? OHHHMMMM!

Nurses Note: Stress is a major factor in many diseases and illnesses and its effects are seen both mentally and physically.

Objectives List

BIO 211 IPSI COUSE OBJECTIVES

The following list of course goals will be addressed in the course. These goals are directly related to the performance objectives.

   1.  Understand overall body homeostasis with specific regard given to the effects of aging and stress on each system

  2.   Apply critical and integrated thinking skills.     Solve for unknowns by manipulating variables

  3.    Differentiate the differences between endocrine and exocrine glands.

 4.    Explain why the hypothalamus is classified as an endocrine gland.

 5.   Use written and oral communication skills to explain scientific concepts

 6.    Analyze factors that can affect cellular activities

 7.  Demonstrate correct care and safe use of instruments,  equipment, and living organisms

 8.    Compare and contrast bond types.

 9.    Identify classes of hormones.

10.  Understand structure and  function of the  endocrine system in relation to growth and homeostasis.

11.     Name hypothalamus- pituitary complex hormones and give their functions.

12.   Name hormones of the gonads and give their functions.

13.   Describe the location, histology, hormones and functions of the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands,the adrenal glands,the pancreas, the ovaries, the testes,the pineal gland and the thymus.

14.    Discuss how the adrenal gland responds to stress.

15.   Outline the path of blood flow through the chambers of the heart and through the systemic and pulmonary circulations.

16.  List and describe the functions of blood

17. List the principal physical characteristics of blood

18.  Describe the principal components of blood

19.  Describe the structure, functions, life cycle and production of erythrocytes

and leukocytes.

20.  Explain ABO blood types and their importance in blood transfusion.

21. Understand the blood clotting process.

22.  Identify major vessels entering and leaving the heart.

23.  Describe the structures of the heart

24.  Recall physiology of heart and blood vessels

25. Review the cardiac cycle as it relates to the electrical conducting system.

26. Listen to heart sounds.

27. Explain the meaning of an electrocardiogram and its diagnostic importance.

28. Compare the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins.     

29.  Understand how heart valves ensure one-way  blood flow during systole and  diastole.

30. Locate major arteries branching off the aorta and regions of the body they supply blood to.

31. Identify the major veins draining into the superior and inferior vena cavae.

32. Describe the role of skeletal muscle contractions and venous valves in  returning blood to the heart.

33. Discuss the components and  functions of the  lymphatic  and immune system.

34.  Describe the formation and flow of lymph

35.  Recognize pathogen types and outline how the body protects itself.

36. Compare the structure and functions of the primary and secondary lymphatic organs and tissues.

37.  Relate edema and lymph flow

38.  Explain why development  of self-tolerance is important.

39.  Describe cellular and non-cellular immunity.

40.  Summarize development and maturation of  B- and T-  lymphocytes.

41. Distinguish non-specific, innate or natural immunity  from specific or acquired immunity.

42. Describe the anatomy and histology of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

43.Locate and identify the functions of each respiratory system structure.

44. Characterize the neuronal network that controls respiration.

45. Relate breathing to cellular respiration

46. Decide how arterial carbon dioxide concentrations affect ventilation.

47. Delineate the role of muscles and lung elasticity in inhalation and exhalation.

48. Contrast inspiration and exhalation.

49.  Demonstrate spirometer use and examine spirogram data

50.  Describe kidney function

51. Detail the kidney involvement in blood pressure and blood volume regulation

52. Define Dalton’s law of partial pressure, Boyles gas Law and relate both to respiratory physiology.

53.  Address how erythropoietin regulates red blood cell production.

54.Trace the path of blood flow through the kidneys.

55. Examine differences in metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis.

56. Justify the role of lacteals in transporting  products of digestion

57. Relate structure and function of the endocrine system to digestion.

58. Appreciate the microscopic anatomy of the liver.

59.Describe enzymatic and bicarbonate content of pancreatic juices.

60. State the chemical forms in which the major food classes are absorbed.

61.Describe external and internal gross renal system anatomy

62.Describe the structure and function of renal corpuscles and renal tubules

64. Discuss how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported

65.State the importance of  juxtaglomerular  cells in  secretion of renin.

66.Identify the three basic tasks performed by nephrons and collecting ducts, and indicate where each task occurs.

67.Contrast volume and electrolyte content  in inter- and  extracellular fluid compartments.

68.Recognize how chemical  buffers interact to protect the body  against lethal  changes of pH

69. Assess how water excess and dehydration affect kidney function

70. Recognize how the lungs and kidneys interact to protect the body against lethal changes of pH

71. Explore how spermatozoa move through the female reproductive tract.

72.Evaluate fertilization in terms of evolutionary fitness.

73.Compare and contrast  oogenesis and  spermatogenesis.

74. Distinguish between diploid germ cells and haploid sex cells.

75.Explain what happens during follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phases of the menstural cycle.

76.Differentiate between zygote, morula, and blastocyst.

77. Recognize that a blastocyst secretes human  gonadotropin, which  prolongs the life of the corpus luetum.

78.Distinguish among the different parts (gross and histological) of the alimentary canal in terms of structure and function.

79.Locate the structures of the male and female reproductive systems.